Abstract

Hemp is becoming a cornerstone crop in many regions of the U.S.A. The burgeoning hemp economy presents a timely opportunity for agriculturalists and researchers in the Tobacco country of the American Southeast to replace tobacco, which has withered in the past few decades, with hemp as the cash crop for the 21^st century. This review details Cannabis biochemistry and the processing technologies that yield final hemp products within the context of global and American markets. The analytical discussion is further contextualized with recent fervor for Cannabis products that has ignited Cannabis decriminalization throughout the country, after a century of sociopolitical stigmas and prohibition. This review provides a unique perspective of the blossoming hemp economy while seeking to urge and inspire agriculturalists and researchers of the American Southeast to seize the opportunity of replacing tobacco with hemp as the 21^st century cash crop.

Graphical Abstract

Introduction

Cannabis sativa

Cannabis is recapturing its popular fixation as a wonder crop. The natively Eurasian genus ^1,2 has provided societies with fiber, food, and medicine since at least 2700 B.C.E. ³ and possibly since before 8000 B.C.E ⁴. This versatile crop consists of distinct species in Figure 1⁵ whose qualities have different applications. Cannabis sativa L. is "hemp" that is used for food, fiber, and medicine. Cannabis indica is "marijuana" that is used for medicine, recreation, and ceremony ⁶. These two distinct species, however, are often mistaken for each other, which has been detrimental to hemp agriculture over the past century.

The tarnishing of Cannabis and Hemp began with the Reefer Madness campaign of 1936. The campaign unfortunately vilified all Cannabis products including hemp as being hallucinogenic agents that inspire violent crime. The Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 quickly followed popular dismay from the Reef Madness campaign, where all Cannabis operations, including innocuous hemp farms, were rendered financially impractical and thus cultivation gradually subsided ⁷. The financial constraints were lifted only once during World War II ^8,9 when the American military became in desperate need of hemp fibers after the Japanese military seized friendly hemp farms in the Pacific ¹⁰. The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of 1970 initiated the infamous war on drugs which made the mere use or possession of any Cannabis varieties, including non-psychedelic hemp¹¹, a high felony, and which has exacerbated social tensions in the US justice system ¹². The CSA defines Cannabis in the highest classification as a Schedule 1 substance, yet, perplexingly, Schedule 1 substances must by definition lack medicinal value and Cannabis possesses numerous medical uses like medical marijuana and in prescription drugs (more in section Female Flower) ¹³. These legal policies, nevertheless, have maligned attitudes of Cannabis both domestically and internationally; for example, the Italian hemp cultivation plummeted from 135,000 hectares to 150 hectares during the 20^th century ¹⁴.

Figure 1: The gross botanical form and leaf features of the two prominent Cannabis species.

Legislation

Hemp is now crucially being differentiated from marijuana and thus liberated from limitations ¹⁵. Varying degrees of Cannabis declassification have occurred in all but 6 American states ¹⁶, in spite of the federal Schedule 1 classification ¹⁷, and federal law now recognizes hemp as distinct from marijuana after the US Agricultural Act of 2014 and in the Agricultural Improvement Act of 2018 ¹⁸:

The term "hemp" means the plant Cannabis sativa L. and any part of that plant, including the seeds thereof and all derivatives, extracts, cannabinoids, isomers, acids, salts, and salts of isomers, whether growing or not, with a delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] concentration of not more than 0.3 percent on a dry weight basis.

This momentum and growing awareness of hemp is even inspiring federal proposals to protect the Cannabis domestic economy through the SAFE act ¹⁹ and the CLAIM act ²⁰, and to declassify all Cannabis products through the MORE act ²¹. Recreational declassification and Cannabis reform may be especially eminent with the recent Democratic sweep of the Legislative and Executive federal branches in the 2020 election, and with growing bipartisan support of Cannabis ²². We believe that this pivotal embrace for hemp and Cannabis products, in tandem with expanding consumer demand ²³ and a domestic aptitude for cash crops in the following discourse, will fuel the American hemp renaissance of the 21^st century.

Tobacco Country

Hemp may be an agent of economic repair to the American Tobacco country. The tobacco country of the American Southeast, which includes Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, and especially North Carolina ²⁴, enriched with the tobacco industry: e.g. Duke University and Duke energy in North Carolina were funded by James Buchanan Duke ²⁵ who industrialized the cigarette rolling machine ²⁶. These states have unfortunately also decayed with the American tobacco industry, where 20^th century medical research ^27-30 fueled the indictment of tobacco companies ³¹ and marred domestic tobacco consumerism ^32,33. Recent international growth in tobacco consumption is moreover sheltered from domestic tobacco industry by international tariffs ³⁴, which compounds the economic hardship. The North Carolinian tobacco workforce has, for example, decreased by 56% between 1992-2012 ³⁵ and the quantity of North Carolinian tobacco farms plummeted by 95% between 1954-2012 ³⁶. The regional consequence is that skilled farmers, industrial infrastructure, and knowledgeable business people are idle without a profitable cash crop.

Progressive tobacco farmers have transitioned to cultivating hemp. These successful transitions from tobacco to hemp are documented in Kentucky ^37,38 and Tennessee ^39,40, and are inspiring agriculturalists across former Tobacco country to explore hemp as an emerging cash crop. Kentucky was once the epicenter of American hemp during the turn of the 20^th century, and, although these hemp genetics have disappeared ^10,41 except for remnants in the wild ^42,43, robust hemp genetics for the American Southeast can be recreated through cloning and genetic engineering technologies that are available to growers today. The agronomic benefits of growing hemp are also pronounced ^44-48, which provides an additional utility to new hemp growers as a valuable rotation crop as well as a cash crop.

State legislatures are anticipating and supporting the agricultural transition. The North Carolina legislature recently established a commission to investigate whether a portion of the estimated $5 billion of domestic hemp revenue by 2027 ⁴⁹ can be claimed by the North Carolinian state economy ⁵⁰. The Virginian legislature has recently decriminalized Cannabis and will legalize recreational marijuana ⁵¹, which will invite the Cannabis industry to establish in Virginia and will challenge the rest of Tobacco country to follow their lead. These recent actions establish favorable precedence for hemp in Tobacco country that may continue to reverberate through the region and predictably inspire resident agriculturalists to join the movement by replacing tobacco with hemp. The American Southeast appears to be recognizing the redeeming potential of hemp for the region's agricultural sector that is in dire need of a cash crop.

The Hemp Economy

This review, in addition to sociopolitical events, will survey the science and economy of hemp. The scope complements reviews by Amaducci et al.⁵² and Small et al.⁵³ by emphasizing hemp products and economic prospects, and by geographically contextualizing the discussion within the American Southeast. Hemp products are generally sex-dependent, where males produce seeds and fine fibers while females produce flower buds and coarse fibers⁵⁴, and thus the following sections briefly articulate each product category ^55,56. We believe that the collective value of these products justify the pivotal role of hemp as an agricultural cash crop in the 21^st century.

Female Flower

The female hemp flower bud is a biochemical cornucopia. The flower bud is the source of naturopathic hemp and CBD oils, and of Cannabis smoking products. The chemical proportions of the flower bud oil are influenced by the extraction method ^57,58, although, the flower oil extracts invariably contain medicinal chemicals like sterols, fragrant terpenes ^59,60, cannabinoids, and cannflavins ⁶¹. This diverse assemblage of chemicals ⁵⁸ in hemp flower oils is renowned for exerting an "entourage effect" ^62-64, where the medicinal effects of the complete hemp extract ⁶⁵ are greater than the isolated effects of each contributing chemical; nevertheless, each chemical of the extracted entourage has distinct medicinal value. The sterol β-sitosterol, for example, can remedy prostate enlargement and can be chemopreventive⁶⁶. The most prevalent terpenes in Cannabis are limonene that is common in citrus fruits and mycrene that is common in thyme and hops, which are depicted in Figure 2. Limonene is chemoprotective and chemotherapeutic^67,68, and dissolves gallstones in vivo ⁶⁹. Myrcene, by contrast, is hepatoprotective ⁷⁰, prevents genetic damage ⁷¹, and attenuates osteoarthritis ⁷². Cannabinoids are the quintessential medicinal extract from Cannabis ^73-75, which constitute a diverse set of > 60 cannabinoids ⁶⁰ in numerous chemical classes, which are sampled in Figure 3.

The effects of the cannabinoids primarily originate from the endocannabinoid system. The endocannabinoid system ⁷⁶ is defined by the network of CB1 and CB2 receptors throughout the body, and particularly in the nervous system. The endocannabinoid system is involved in myriad physiological phenomena like dementia and Parkinson's Disease ⁷⁷, and also like the fabled "runner's high" ⁷⁸. The CBC cannabinoid class ⁷⁹ from Figure 3 is anti-inflammatory ^80,81 and selectively stimulates CB2 receptors ⁸². The psychedelic cannabinoid class THC from marijuana stimulates CB1 receptors in the nervous system ⁸³, which ignites hunger and attenuates nausea. These physiological effects of THC cannabinoids are used medicinally in the drugs dronabinol, nabilone, and marinol ^84-86. The economically emerging cannabinoid class CBD ⁸⁷ from hemp stimulates both nervous CB1 receptors and bodily CB2 receptors ⁸⁸, which simultaneously attenuates inflammation ⁸⁹ and normalizes the nervous system. The latter attribute is used medicinally in the drug Epidiolex ⁹⁰ to treat epilepsy.

Figure 3: Chemical structures of common terpenes in Cannabis: a) Myrcene and b) Limonene. Both chemicals are monoterpenes.

Figure 4: Chemical structures of cannabinoid classes: a) delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinoid (THC) class, b) cannabidiol (CBD) class, c) cannabichromene (CBC) class, d) ubiquitous cannabinoid skeleton.
The reported conformers for each member of the THC, CBD, and CBC cannabinoid classes are represented through the R-groups below each structural image.

Male Hempseeds

Hempseeds are a diverse hemp product. Hempseeds may be used as a hearty 21^st century food, which are well aligned with progressive trends towards hypoallergenic ^91,92 and plant-based proteins. The protein of hempseeds is both readily digestible⁹³ and contains a complete amino acid profile ⁹⁴, which are favorable attributes for healthful eating. The plant protein market was valued at $9.7 billion in 2020 and is estimated to reach $13.8 billion by 2026 ⁹⁵, which is fueled by the consumer migration toward vegetarianism and veganism ⁹⁶ that already describe ~21% of the global population ⁹⁷ . Hempseeds may further be a source of industrious oil. Hempseed oil is nutritionally unrivalled for possessing ~85-90% (w/w) omega-6 and omega-3 essential fatty acids in the optimum 3:1 ratio, while additionally containing the rare GLA and SDA fatty acids ⁹⁴ that can alleviate eczema after dietary consumption ⁹⁸. Hempseed oil also possesses nutraceutical chemicals ⁹⁹, like polyphenols ¹⁰⁰. Hempseed oil can moreover be used as an alternative resource for biodiesel ¹⁰¹ and oilseed biomass ¹⁰². Hempseeds are presently the most profitable of all hemp products ⁴¹

Fiber

Hemp is a more sustainable fiber source than trees or other fiber crops. Hemp requires 2-3 orders of magnitude less time to mature than trees and hemp possesses ~1/3 less lignin ¹⁰³ than trees, which permit hemp fiber to be more efficiently processed in industry. Hemp fibers may furthermore be processed with the same industrial infrastructure as conventional wood sources ¹⁰⁴, which facilitates drop-in substitutions of wood fibers with hemp fibers. Hemp in Table 1 is also more resource efficient than other fiber crops, and especially 1^st generation biomass crops ¹⁰⁵ that are critiqued for displacing food from hungry people ¹⁰⁶. Hemp generally deters most pests ¹⁰⁷ via inherent insecticidal properties ¹⁰⁸ and thus hemp requires minimal applications of pesticides, whereas conventional textile fibers like cotton can require ~76 million pounds of pesticides annually ¹⁰⁹. Hemp is evidently an efficient crop that may become a critical feedstock for the emerging bioeconomy ^110,111, which will mitigate Anthropocene ^112-116 and climate change ^117-119 and the deleterious effects of these phenomena ^120-126.

Hemp fibers are categorized into bast fibers and hurd fibers. Hemp bast fibers are exceptionally long and strong from an unusually high cellulosic content relative to hardwoods, softwoods, and other fiber crops ^127-129. Hemp hurd fibers, by contrast, are of average quality, yet, they are notably hydrophilic. These fibers are contrasted in Figure 2 and Table 2. The different fiber qualities manifest in the distinct uses for each fiber, which are described in the following subsections.

Bast Fibers

Hemp bast fibers are the original hemp fiber resource and are extraordinarily industrious. The highly cellulosic fiber have produced a range of products between cordage⁹ and textiles⁴⁹ since antiquity. Contemporary demand for hemp bast fiber is rekindling from the wave of awareness for sustainable resources like hemp ¹³⁰. The influential American companies Patagonia ¹³¹ and Xero ¹³², for example, are blending hemp with their conventional materials in new sustainable product lines ¹³³. These trend-setting movements may inspire an industry adoption of hemp fiber to meet the apprehended future textile demands.

Hemp bast fibers are the quintessential pulp and paper resource. The original paper millennia ago was created from hemp bast fibers^134-136, and the long cellulosic fibers are still a favorable paper resource for being tear resistant and extraordinarily strong ¹²⁷. The economic prowess of the modern pulp and paper industry ¹³⁷ provides ample opportunity for hemp agriculturalists to acquire steady profit through hemp bast fibers. The global revenue of container cartoons alone, which is within the packaging materials sector of the pulp and paper industry ¹³⁸, is $22 billion ¹³⁹. The American graphic and writing papers sector of the pulp and paper industry is >$96 billion ¹⁴⁰, and the global tissues sector ¹⁴¹ of the pulp and paper industry is >$70 billion ¹⁴² . These large and expanding pulp and paper sectors ¹⁴³, when coupled with the industrial shift towards mitigating deforestation ¹⁴⁴, converge on using hemp bast fibers as a resource that uniquely satisfies both the need for a cellulose fiber and the desire for a sustainable resource.

Table 1: Annual agronomic metrics for 1^st generation biomass food crops (corn and soybeans), a fiber crop (hemp), and a woody crop (willow).

Plant feedstock	Water requirements $\left(\frac{mm_{H_2O}}{year}\right)$	Fertilizer requirements $\left(\frac{kg}{hectare*year}\right)$	Dry crop yield $\left(\frac{kg}{hectare*year}\right)$
Corn	343 ^[7,9] - 880 ^[8]	338 ^[2]	2900 ^[7,1,3] - 11,800 ^[8]
Soybeans	733 ^[9]	59-321 ^[12]	1720 ^[1] - 8500 ^[10]
Hemp		45.4 ^[4,6,11,15] - 150 ^[5]	8300 ^[6] - 14,400 ^[11]
Shrub willow	494 ^[14] - 3954 ^[13]	100 ^[12]	7700 ^[12]

^[1] The original source is inaccessible from China ¹⁴⁵; ^[2]The total mass is constituted by nitrogen (162kg), phosphate (68kg), Potash (90kg), and Sulfer (18kg) ¹⁴⁶; ^[3]The "56 lb per bushel" definition is assumed ¹⁴⁷; ^[4]The fertilizer value represents the value for the maximum shive content ¹⁰²; ^[5]Nitrogen was the most influential nutrient ¹⁴⁸; ^[6] The tallest hemp plants were observed with 60 kg Nitrogen¹⁴⁹; ^[7]Citation¹⁵⁰; ^[8] 440 for irrigated water requirements ¹⁵¹; ^[9]A weighted average of the irrigated and non-irrigated fields ¹⁰⁵; ^[10]Nitrogen exclusively for non-nodulating isolines ¹⁵²; ^[11]The yield is defined as biogas substrate ¹⁵³; ^[12]Exclusively nitrogen fertilization, where the addition of potassium and phosphorous fertilizers were not associated with increased growth rates ¹⁵⁴; ^[13]The seasonal EF in wetlands ¹⁵⁵; ^[14] Sapflow was considered a proxy for transpiration ¹⁵⁶; ^[15] Nitrogen was the most influential nutrient and thus it was only provided in the study¹⁵⁷

Figure 4: Graphic contrast of the long bast fibers and the short hurd fibers from hemp.

Table 2: Contrasted properties of the bast and hurd hemp fibers.

Hemp fiber type	Constitution of hemp stem (%)	Length (mm)	Cellulose (%)	Lignin (%)	Relative economic value
Bast	35 ^[3] - 40 ^[1]	20 ^[2]	55-80.5 ^[1,2,3,5]	4 ^[2,5] - 7 ^[3]	10 ^[2]
Hurd	60-65	<2 ^[2] - 5 ^[4]	33 ^[2,5] - 48 ^[3,4]	21 ^[4,5] - 35 ^[2,14]	1 ^[2]

^[1] ¹⁵⁸; ^[2]External citations to undiscovered Kundu, 1942 and Bedetti and Ciarali, 1976 ¹⁵⁹; ^[3]Citation ¹⁶⁰; ^[4]Citation ¹⁶¹; ^[5]Citation ¹⁰⁴

Hurd Fibers

Hemp hurd fibers (shives) are affordable and hydrophilic. The hydrophilicity of hemp hurds is useful for absorptive materials ¹⁶² like animal bedding ¹³⁷, cements ^163,164, and tissue and towel paper products ¹⁶⁵. The affordability of hemp hurds encourages their application as a 2^nd generation alternative feedstock ¹⁶⁶ in producing platform materials ¹⁰³ and biofuels ¹⁶⁷. The already large demand for biofuels ¹⁶⁸ will increase as oil reserves dissipate in this century ¹⁶⁹ and as governments incentivize ¹⁷⁰ biofuels ^171-173 toward achieving their low carbon emission goals ¹⁷⁴. The affordable hemp hurd fibers can be applied in biocomposites materials ^175-177 like hemp/polyester ¹⁷⁸, hemp/polypropylene ¹⁷⁹, and hemp/epoxy ¹⁸⁰ blends. These blends are preferred over conventional plastics ^181,182 for minimizing plastic pollution ^184-187and for being more affordable and lighter without sacrificing strength ¹⁸³. Hemp hurds may also be a more affordable alternative to hemp bast fibers ¹⁸⁸ in creating nanocellulose fibrils ^189,190, which offer unique material properties in bioactive and electrolytic applications ¹⁹¹ as two of many examples ¹⁹².

Hurd and Bast Fiber Separation

Hemp bast and hurd fibers can only be used after they are separated from each other. This separation process remains the greatest challenge of utilizing hemp fibers and is an active area of research. Retting is the centuries old method of liberating hurd and bast fibers ^193,194 through decomposing the polymeric integument that binds the bast and hurd fibers together. Traditional retting exploits soil microbes ¹⁹⁵ and morning dew ¹⁹⁶ to cultivate biodegradation of the natural integument. Industrial retting controls the decomposition conditions ¹⁹⁷ and adds complementary chemical additives ^198-201 that can expedite the degradation ^202,203 or can improve the sustainability of the process ²⁰⁴.

Decortication separates hemp fibers either after, or in lieu of, retting ²⁰⁵. Decortication mechanically separates the bast and the hurd fibers from hemp ^206,207 via normal or pinning methods ²⁰⁸. The former method processes each hemp stalk in a single pass while the latter method repeatedly inserts and withdraws each hemp stalk from the decorticator as a means of straightening the fiber. Mechanical alternatives to decortication include hammer-milling ²⁰⁹ and ball-milling ²¹⁰, which use hammers or metallic balls respectively to pulverize the integument of the hemp stalks and thereby liberate the two hemp fiber types from each other. Decortication protocols are being improved ^211,212, which may gradually popularize the process as a means of preparing hemp fibers for textiles ²¹³ and other fibrous applications.

Fiber Pulping

The separated fibers can be processed in pulp and paper industry through myriad means. The chemical and physical pulping methods for hemp are sampled in Table 3, although, physical and chemical treatments are often combined in practice for greater efficacy. The ubiquitous Kraft pulping process ^214-216 is notably effective with hemp fibers ^217,218, yet, the hydroxide concentration must be balanced to prevent the excessive hydroxide from deteriorating the fiber quality ¹⁷⁹. Steam treatments ^219,220 and combinations of steam with the Kraft process ²²¹ are also efficacious.

A few green chemistry methods are also being explored in hemp fiber treatment. One method is autohydrolysis, where heated water depolymerizes polysaccharides like hemicellulose ^222,223 and therefore primes the fiber for further biorefinery. Another method replaces caustic bleaching agents with mild carbonate solutions ²²⁴. These green chemistry methods are appealing for future research as both benign and sustainable means for accessing hemp fibers.

Table 3: Chemical and physical degradation methods for processing lignocellulosic hemp material.

Hemp fiber type	Constitution of hemp stem (%)
Chemical treatment method	Physical treatment method
Gasification ^[225]	Ball-milling ^[226]
Aqueous solutions ^[227]	Irradiation ^[228]
Organic solvents ^[229,230]	Heat treatment under Nitrogen gas ^[231]
Alkaline solutions ^[217,232]
Acidic solutions ^[233,234]
Ionic liquids ^[235,236]
Supercritical fluids (flax was examined) ^[237]

Hemp country

The American Southeast is graced with hemp as a replacement cash crop for tobacco. The multitude of hemp products that span medicine, fiber, and food offer abundant economic opportunity for agricultural and industrial entrants to profit through the 21^st century from the burgeoning hemp economy. These economic opportunities are furthermore experiencing political tailwinds, which may climax in this Democratic 2021-2023 congressional cycle with the legalization of recreational marijuana in the federal and state governments. The alignment of consumer fervor for sustainable and healthy products, the underutilized aptitude for cultivating cash crops in the American Southeast, and the political sentiments of this decade will billow the hemp industry through the foreseeable future into a noteworthy agricultural renaissance. The Tobacco country of the American Southeast may soon become known as Hemp country.

Acknowledgements:

The authors are beholden to Dr. Michael Harrington and GenoVerde Biosciences. Their support enabled the research and experiences that manifested in this paper. Larry and the associated farm workers with GenoVerde Biosciences deserve exceptional gratitude for teaching us, as lab scientists, the intimacies of hemp cultivation. The authors are thankful to Ann Blake of the Berkeley Center for Green Chemistry. She graced our research with intelligent discourse and new perspectives of the bioeconomy in North Carolina and beyond. The authors are finally indebted to Kristen Freiburger for her selfless support and suggestions.

Declaration of interests:

The authors have no competing financial or personal interests for the publication of the review herein. Neither party is politically active or legally tethered.

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Hemp Is the 21st Century Tobacco